The Legacy of Looted Treasures: Colonial Art Acquisitions, Repatriation, and the Future of African Heritage

In the dim galleries of the British Museum, intricate brass plaques and sculpted heads from the ancient Kingdom of Benin stand as silent witnesses to a tumultuous history. These artefacts, collectively known as the Benin Bronzes, were not gifted or sold but seized in a blaze of colonial violence during the 1897 British Punitive Expedition, which razed Benin City and scattered its royal treasures across the globe.

This feature article exemplifies the broader saga of colonial art acquisitions, a systematic plundering that stripped colonised peoples of their cultural soul, fueling Western museums while erasing indigenous narratives. As calls for justice grow louder in the 21st century, the story of these artefacts unfolds as a profound reckoning with imperialism’s enduring shadow. 

The “Scramble for Africa” following the Berlin Conference of 1884-85 deeply entwined the historical roots of colonial art acquisitions. The European powers did not just carve up the continent for its rubber, gold, and labour; they also sought to document and civilise what they perceived as vanishing cultures.

Artefacts were acquired through three primary channels: military conquest, coercive trade, and scientific missions. Often, colonial administrators and anthropologists viewed African art as ethnographic specimens rather than aesthetic masterpieces. Legal precedents, such as the 1854 ruling by English judge Robert Phillimore, affirmed that “acquisitions of war belong to the state,” effectively legalising state-sponsored theft.

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In Nigeria, the impact was particularly devastating. The 1897 raid yielded over 3,000 items, including ivory tusks carved with the history of the Benin people and brass plaques that served as the kingdom’s official archives. These were auctioned off in London to pay for the very expedition that destroyed the city, leading to their dispersal in museums from Berlin to New York.

 

Global and Regional Landmarks of Loss

The scale of this cultural dispossession is staggering. Beyond the borders of Nigeria, notable examples illustrate a global pattern:

 The Parthenon Marbles (Greece): Removed by Lord Elgin in the early 1800s, these remain the most famous example of contested heritage in the West.

 The Maqdala Treasures (Ethiopia): Looted by British forces in 1868, including the crown of Emperor Tewodros II and hundreds of sacred manuscripts.

 Asante Gold (Ghana): Seized during the 1874 Anglo-Asante War, these items represented the literal and spiritual wealth of the Asantehene.

 The Ife Bronzes (Nigeria): While the Benin Bronzes are more numerous, the copper-alloy heads found at Ife in the 1930s represent a peak of African naturalism. Some were smuggled out of the country and didn’t show up in foreign collections until decades later.

UNESCO’s 1970 Convention provided a framework for preventing the illicit import/export of cultural property, but it largely failed to address items taken during the colonial era. Consequently, the push for return has relied more on moral pressure than international law.

 

The Long Cry for Return

The call for the return of African art is not a modern “woke” phenomenon; it has been a consistent demand since the dawn of independence.

Early Resistance (1930s-50s): Indigenous leaders and local scholars in Nigeria began requesting the return of specific regalia for ceremonial use.

 The Decolonisation Era (1960s–70s): In 1972, Nigeria’s antiquities director, Ekpo Eyo, formally requested “permanent loans” from West Germany.

Festa ’77: A pivotal moment occurred when the British Museum refused to loan the Queen Idia Ivory Mask, the official emblem of the Second World Black and African Festival of Arts and Culture, to Nigeria, claiming the 16th-century artefact was too fragile to travel.

French President Emmanuel Macron’s 2017 speech in Burkina Faso, where he declared that “African heritage can no longer be the prisoner of European museums,” ignited the movement. This led to the landmark Sarr-Savoy Report, which estimated that 90% to 95% of Africa’s cultural heritage is held outside the continent.

The argument for restitution is built on the premise of restorative justice. These artefacts are not merely art in the Western sense; they are living objects, ancestral spirits, legal records, and communal memories.

Western institutions often defend their holdings through the Universal Museum narrative, arguing that they can better preserve and display these items for a global audience. However, critics argue that this privileges the colonial holder over the indigenous creator. Retaining looted art is considered a continuation of the colonial project, denying African nations the right to define their own history and perform their own rituals. The physical return of these objects to their original soil is necessary to heal the living wound of colonialism.

 

Successes, Failures, and the Path Ahead

The 2020s have seen a mix of monumental triumphs and frustrating stalemates.

Recent Successes

 France (2021): The return of 26 Dahomey treasures to the Republic of Benin.

Germany (2022-2023): A historic agreement saw the transfer of ownership of over 1,100 Benin Bronzes to Nigeria.

The Netherlands (2025): The return of 119 artefacts marks one of the largest single transfers in history.

United States: The Smithsonian Institution and several university museums have deaccessioned items, choosing to follow ethical guidelines over legal technicalities.

 

The Tourism and Economic Ripple Effect

Repatriation is not just about the past; it is a catalyst for Africa’s future. The return of these works is expected to ignite a cultural tourism boom.

Museum Infrastructure: The planned Edo Museum of West African Art (EMOWAA) in Benin City is designed to be a world-class facility that will anchor a new cultural district.

Economic revival: By housing these artefacts, Nigeria can capture global tourism revenue that currently flows to Europe. This supports local hospitality, transport, and the “Orange Economy” of creative arts.

Authenticity: There is a unique power to see an artefact in its original geographical and spiritual context. Tourists are increasingly seeking these authentic experiences over the sterile environments of metropolitan Western museums.

The journey of the Benin Bronzes and other African treasures is a testament to the resilience of cultural identity. While 90% of the continent’s heritage may still reside in foreign vaults, the tide has irrevocably turned. The path forward demands a reimagined global heritage framework, one that replaces the “spoils of war” mentality with a spirit of collaboration, transparency, and deep respect for the ancestors whose spirits reside in these works.

 

Frequently Asked Questions and Answers

1. What are the Benin Bronzes?

The Benin Bronzes are thousands of intricate brass, bronze, and ivory sculptures, plaques, and heads created in the Kingdom of Benin (modern-day Nigeria) between the 13th and 19th centuries. They were looted by British forces during the 1897 Punitive Expedition and dispersed to museums worldwide, symbolising colonial plunder.

2. Why were African artefacts looted during colonial times?

During the 19th and early 20th centuries, European powers acquired artefacts through military conquests, punitive expeditions, coercive trades, and theft, often justified as “civilising” missions or scientific collections. This reached its height in Africa during the Scramble for Africa, when the British looted Benin City and the French took over Dahomey.

3. What is the difference between repatriation and restitution?

Repatriation refers to the physical return of cultural objects to their country of origin. Restitution is broader, involving the legal transfer of ownership, often to original communities or descendants, and may include reparations for historical injustices.

4. Why is repatriation of African art ethically important?

These artefacts embody spiritual, historical, and communal identities. Retaining them in Western museums perpetuates colonial erasure, denies source communities access, and upholds unequal power dynamics. Return fosters healing, cultural renewal, and restorative justice.

5. What are some recent successes in repatriating Benin Bronzes?

In 2025, the Netherlands returned 119 Benin Bronzes to Nigeria in the largest single repatriation to date. Germany has ongoing returns, Sweden plans 39 in 2026, and institutions like the Smithsonian and Horniman Museum have transferred ownership. However, major holders like the British Museum resist full returns.

6. Who owns the repatriated Benin Bronzes in Nigeria?

A 2023 presidential decree recognises the Oba of Benin as the rightful custodian and resolves disputes between the royal court, federal government, and Edo State. Returned pieces are often held temporarily by national museums pending new facilities.

7. Will repatriation boost tourism in Nigeria and Africa?

Yes, significantly. Projects like the Edo Museum of West African Art (EMOWAA/MOWAA), set to open in phases around 2025-2026, and the Benin Royal Museum could attract global visitors. They can rejuvenate local economies by engaging with heritage sites, crafts, and education, thereby transforming cultural returns into sustainable tourism growth.

8. What challenges remain in repatriating African artefacts?

Internal disputes in Nigeria over custody, legal barriers in holding countries (e.g., the British Museum Act), inadequate infrastructure for preservation, and politicisation are slowing progress. Despite momentum, an estimated 90% of Africa’s heritage remains abroad.