Human occupation in Nigeria goes back thousands of years. Archaeological evidence, including the oldest fossil remains discovered at Akure, dates from approximately 9000 BCE. While numerous ancient tools and artefacts from various periods of the Stone Age exist, the Nok culture, which lived from approximately 500 BCE to 200 CE, provides the earliest recognised evidence of an organised community.
Nok culture
The Nok culture, named after the village where several discoveries were unearthed, created beautiful terra-cotta figurines discovered by tin miners on the Jos Plateau in the 1930s. Initially Neolithic, the Nok culture evolved into the Iron Age, growing crops and keeping livestock. They focused on personal beautification, particularly hair. Naturalism, stylised mouths and eyes, specific human feature proportions, facial aberrations, and animal forms are all hallmarks of Nok art. The proliferation of Nok-type figures indicates a well-established culture that influenced a large area south of the Jos Plateau. The distinct elements of Nok art impacted later Nigerian art in Igbo Ukwu, Ife, Esie, and Benin City.
Igbo Ukwu
Bronzes from the ninth century CE were unearthed in the 1930s and 1940s at Igbo Ukwu, near Onitsha. These bronzes reflect a robust artistic history and a well-organized society with substantial commercial ties. The bronzes’ copper and lead may have come from Tadmekka in the Sahara, while the coloured glass beads came from Venice and India via trade routes through Egypt, the Nile valley, and the Chad basin. The bronzes most likely graced a high-ranking individual’s burial chamber, maybe an early eze nri, a priest-king with religious power over much of the Igbo territory.
Kingdoms and empires of precolonial Nigeria.
Before British dominance in the late nineteenth century, various indigenous polities arose in Nigeria. In the north, there were the large and established Hausa states of Kano, Katsina, Zaria, and Gobir; Kanem-Borno; and the Jukun states of Kwararafa, Kona, Pinduga, and Wukari. The smaller northern kingdoms included the Igala, Nupe, and Ebira. In the south, essential polities were the Yoruba states of Ife and Oyo, the Edo state of Benin, the Itsekiri state of Warri, the Efik state of Calabar, and the Ijo (Ijaw) city-states of Nembe, Elem Kalabari, Bonny, and Okrika.
Kanem-Borno
Borno’s history predates the 9th century when Arabic writers in North Africa mentioned the kingdom of Kanem, located east of Lake Chad. The lake was more extensive then; its basin drew people and commerce. Ancestors of the Kanuri built a centralised state over the Sao people. Initially, Kanem’s commerce connections extended to Egypt’s Nile valley, and there is evidence of communication with Christian Nubian kings before Muslim domination took root in the eleventh century. Kanem’s rulers attempted to conquer lands south and west of the lake. Still, by the 12th century, invasions by the Sao caused them to relocate their capital west of Lake Chad, resulting in the loss of most of their original domain.
Borno was a dominant power in central Sudan, including much of Hausa’s land. The Bayajiddalegend suggests that Borno influenced the rise of a centralised political system in Hausaland. Although Borno’s rulers adopted Islam, the monarchy retained traditional structures, with significant power held by the queen’s mother and other female officials. Pre-Islamic beliefs dictated the selection of the monarch, coronation rites, and royal authority. Princes and royal family members were given fiefs and governed frontier zones, while people of slave origin were preferred for the royal guard and palace officials.
Hausa land
The northern lowlands beyond the Jos Plateau have been a critical crossroads for ages. This territory was linked to Borno, Mali, Songhai, north of Africa, and diverse woodland regions, promoting the formation of centralised states such as Daura, Katsina, Kano, Zaria, Gobir, and Kebbi. These states had walled cities, market hubs, and monarchical forms of governance. Islam arrived in the 14th century from the Mali Empire, supporting the monarchy and commercial connections, although it remained predominantly an urban religion until the nineteenth century. Despite Islamic influences, several pre-Islamic traditions were preserved in monarchical celebrations. Rivalries between these states over agricultural land and trade control were widespread, and powerful neighbours such as Borno and Songhai would occasionally seize Hausa territory.
The Sokoto Jihad
At the start of the 19th century, Islam was well-established in the major centres of the Hausa states and Borno, with the ruler of Nupe also converting to Islam. However, a group of Muslim intellectuals, primarily Fulani and led by Usman dan Fodio, were dissatisfied with the rulers’ tolerance of traditional religious practices and the incomplete observance of Islamic law (sharia). After two decades of writing, teaching, and preaching, Usman withdrew his followers to Gudu, where they declared him amīr al-muʾminīn and prepared for jihad (struggle or battle) to overthrow unjust rulers. His call for jihad resonated widely, influencing not only the Hausa states but also Borno, Bauchi, Gombe, Adamawa, Nupe, Ilorin, and other areas with Fulani scholars.
This movement led to a caliphate with its capital in Sokoto, where each emirate maintainedautonomy but pledged loyalty and support to the caliphate. Usman Dan Fodio retired in 1811, focusing on the intellectual direction of the movement, while his brother Abdullahi and son Muhammad Bello continued the jihad and established administrative foundations. Upon Usman’s death in 1817, Muhammad Bello became the new amīr al-muʾminīn, and Abdullahi was in charge of the western emirates. This unified the Hausa states, parts of Borno, Nupe, Ilorin, and Fulani outposts in Bauchi and Adamawa into a single politico-religious system. Meanwhile, Borno, under the leadership of Sheikh Muḥammad al-Amīn al-Kānemī, revived Islam and replaced the old Seyfawa dynasty, resisting the Fulani jihad.
Yorubaland and Benin
Ife flourished between the 11th and 15th centuries, becoming a significant power in the forested areas west of the Niger and south of Hausa land. Critical features of Yoruba culture emerged during this period, including a monarchical system based on city-states and villages, a pantheon of gods with local variations, and divination centred on the deity Ifa. Ife is renowned for its artistic potsherd pavements, terra-cottas, and bronze figures, especially their naturalism. The influence of Ife is evident in the fact that all Yoruba monarchies claim descent from Ife, often borrowing regalia for coronation rites and sending the remains of deceased rulers to Ife for burial.
Oyo, founded in the 14th century in the savanna north of the forest, gradually supplanted Ife. After over a century of conflict with Borgu and Nupe, Oyo established itself as a key trading hub, exchanging goods from the north like rock salt, copper, textiles, leather goods, and horses for southern products like kola nuts, indigo, parrots, and cowries. By the 17th century, Oyo had built a powerful cavalry, enabling it to dominate western Yorubaland and the coastal gap, where tsetse fly infestations prevented the effective use of horses by southern kingdoms.
The collapse of the Oyo Empire
The collapse of the Oyo empire was precipitated by internal conflicts between the ruler and his chiefs, exacerbated by external threats like the Fulani intrusion into Ilorin. This event disrupted the supply of horses to Oyo and rendered its capital defenceless, leading to mass migrations southward. This migration established new centres like Oyo, Ibadan, and Ijaye, pushing the Egba further south to found Abeokuta around 1830. The fall of Oyo triggered a series of Yoruba wars lasting until 1886, reshaping the region’s political landscape.
Edo Brass Plaque and Igbo-Delta States
The kingdom of Benin thrived from the 15th century. A complex monarchy governed a vast territory extending into present-day Ghana and Lagos. Benin art, renowned for its bronze and brass sculptures, flourished during this period. Meanwhile, decentralised societies prevailed in Igbo and delta city-states, organised around village communities and age-grade associations. These areas became significant hubs in the Atlantic slave trade by the 17th and 18th centuries despite the devastating social and economic impacts of the trade on their populations.
The British efforts to end the slave trade in Nigeria led to the promotion of the palm oil trade in the Niger Delta, inadvertently fostering an internal slave trade as enslaved individuals were crucial in palm oil production. By the 1820s and ’30s, many enslaved people were intercepted by the Royal Navy and resettled in Sierra Leone. This prompted some to return to Nigeria and facilitate missionary and trade access in cities like Lagos, Abeokuta, and Calabar. British actions, including the shelling of Lagos in 1851 and the annexation in 1861, aimed to protect trade routes and secure bases. The establishment of missionary activities and the Royal Niger Company’s dominance over trade further shaped British influence, culminating in the eventual consolidation of Northern and Southern Nigeria into a unified entity by Frederick Lugard. Resistance against British rule persisted, notably in Western Igboland, where groups like the Ekumeku employed guerrilla tactics against British forces, fostering local nationalism.
The Nigerian Protectorates
The administration underwent significant changes and developments during British colonial rule in Nigeria. Initially, the Royal Niger Company’s territories were reorganised into the Protectorate of Northern Nigeria and the Protectorate of Southern Nigeria, with separate capitals established. In 1914, these were amalgamated into the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria under a single governor-general. Frederick Lugard’s “indirect rule” system allowed local chiefs to govern under European guidance, preserving native institutions with minimal interference. This system evolved into a complex form of governance known as “native administration,” marked by local autonomy under colonial oversight. British influence brought Western education, Christianity, and economic changes based on cash crops, leading to regional disparities and political tensions, notably between the North and South.
The colonisation of Africa by European countries
During World War I, Nigeria joined its forces in invading German-held Kamerun and later deployed troops to East Africa. In World War II, Nigerian troops served in East Africa and Burma. Post-war, Kamerun was divided between France and Britain under the League of Nations mandate, later becoming a UN trust territory. Colonial rule in Nigeria faced challenges, with political reforms gradually granted to address dissent, including establishing the Nigerian Legislative Council in 1914 and expanding representation by 1946. Nigerian nationalism grew, influenced by figures like Herbert Macaulay, who founded the Nigerian National Democratic Party in 1923 and became a symbol of modern Nigerian nationalism despite British opposition.
After the 1930s, Nigerian political efforts increasingly aimed at ending British rule. The Nigerian Youth Movement emerged in 1934, winning seats in the Legislative Council. By 1944, Herbert Macaulay and Nnamdi Azikiwe united numerous groups to form the National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons (NCNC), broadening support for anti-colonial activities among soldiers, youth, women, and intellectuals. Political parties and media played pivotal roles in mobilisingNigerians against British rule.
British responses included the Macpherson Constitution of 1951, which established a central House of Representatives but faced challenges over party authority. The Lyttelton Constitution 1954 established a federal system with three regions: Northern, Western, and Eastern Nigeria, each with significant autonomy. Internal self-government was granted to the Western and Eastern areas by 1957, with the Northern region gaining it in 1959. Ethnic minority concerns were addressed by the Willink Commission in 1958, paving the way for Nigerian independence in 1960.
In the lead-up to Nigerian independence, the country underwent significant political restructuring. By 1939, the Southern Protectorate was divided into Western and Eastern provinces, which, along with the Northern Protectorate, were renamed the Western, Eastern, and Northern regions in 1954 to form a federal state. The Western region, led by Chief Obafemi Awolowo of the Action Group, and the Eastern region, dominated by Nnamdi Azikiwe, gained internal self-government in 1957. However, the Northern region, led by the Northern People’s Congress (NPC) and figures like Abubakar Tafawa Balewa, delayed its self-government until 1959 due to concerns about maintaining equal political influence with the more educationally advanced South.
The Willink Commission addressed ethnic minority fears of discrimination under majority rule in 1958, leading to the British granting of complete independence in 1960.
Nigerian Independence
Nigeria gained independence on October 1, 1960, establishing a federal system with a prime minister and a ceremonial president. The NCNC, led by Nnamdi Azikiwe and Abubakar Tafawa Balewa’s NPC, formed a coalition government after the 1959 elections. Balewa remained prime minister while Azikiwe became president of the Senate. In 1961, the northern part of the Trust Territory of the Cameroons joined Nigeria’s Northern region, while the Southern Cameroons merged with French Cameroun to form Cameroon. Nigeria became a republic on October 1, 1963, with Azikiwe as president and Balewa as powerful prime minister.
Yakubu Gowon
However, ethnic tensions resurfaced, exacerbated by disparities in education and economic opportunities, leading to the contentious 1962–63 census. The creation of the Mid-West region in 1963 attempted to mitigate these conflicts. Still, Nigeria remained divided among three major ethnic areas: Yoruba in the West, Igbo in the East, and Hausa-Fulani in the North. Political instability escalated with the collapse of regional governments, fraudulent elections, and a military coup in 1966 that killed Prime Minister Balewa and regional leaders. Major General Yakubu Gowon took power but faced further turmoil, including ethnic riots and a countercoup by northern officers in July 1966.
Odumegwu Ojukwu
The political turmoil led to Odumegwu Ojukwu’s 1967 declaration of an independent state of Biafra, which triggered the Nigerian Civil War. Efforts to reconcile at the Aburi Conference failed, and Gowon’s government restructured Nigeria into 12 states to decentralise power and ease regional tensions.
The Nigerian–Biafra Civil War (1967–1970)
In 1967, Colonel Ojukwu declared the secession of the Eastern region as the Republic of Biafra, prompting a civil war with the Nigerian federal government. Biafran forces initially advanced but were later pushed back, facing severe civilian casualties and starvation despite international aid efforts. The conflict ended in January 1970 with Biafra’s surrender and integration into Nigeria under General Gowon, who used Nigeria’s oil boom to fund development. Gowon’s rule was later disrupted by a 1975 coup, leading to changes under Brig. Gen. Mohammed, including plans for a return to civilian rule before his assassination in 1976, was succeeded by Gen. Obasanjo.
The Second Republic of Nigeria
After Brig. Gen. Mohammed’s assassination, Gen. Obasanjo pursued a return to civilian rule in Nigeria. A new constitution was established, shifting from a parliamentary to a presidential system. Political parties emerged, with five registered: NPN, Unity Party, PRP, Great Nigeria People’s Party, and Nigeria People’s Party, each promising social and economic reforms. Shehu Shagari of the NPN narrowly won the 1979 presidential election, facing challenges due to corruption and economic decline. Despite controversy, Shagari was reelected in 1983 but faced a coup led by Maj—-Gen—Buhari due to political and financial crises.
Military regimes, 1983–99
Gen. Buhari seized power in 1983, citing economic and social turmoil, implementing the “War Against Indiscipline” (WAI), which initially targeted politicians but expanded to journalists, leading to a decline in government popularity. Gen. Babangida took over in 1985, promising a return to civilian rule, releasing detainees and creating a transition plan for elections by 1993, controlling political parties and manipulating elections. A disputed presidential election in 1993 led to Babangida annulling the results, causing his ousting and the establishment of an Interim National Government under Ernest Shonekan. Gen. Abacha subsequently seized power in 1993, promising transition but ruling with oppressive tactics until he died in 1998.
Gen. Sani Abacha
Following Gen. Abacha’s seizure of power in 1993, Nigeria’s political future dimmed despite Chief Abiola’s democratic victory. Calls for political restructuring intensified, with some advocating for Nigeria’s breakup or a weakened federal structure. The Abacha regime disregarded legal processes, press freedom, and human rights, using violence to suppress dissent. Abiola’s arrest and subsequent death in jail in 1998 drew international condemnation. Gen. Abubakar assumed power after Abacha’s death, promising civilian rule, releasing prisoners, and easing political tensions. While Nigeria’s global image improved under Abubakar, economic growth remained sluggish.
Return to civilian rule – The 1999 elections.
After Gen. Abacha’s death, Nigeria saw a surge in political activity, with numerous parties formed. Three main parties emerged: the People’s Democratic Party (PDP), the Alliance for Democracy, and the All-People’s Party. Elections held from January to March 1999 included local councillors, state and federal legislators, and state governors. In February, the closely monitored presidential polls resulted in Olusegun Obasanjo of the PDP, who had previously overseen Nigeria’s transition from military rule in 1976–1979, being declared the winner.
Olusegun Obasanjo
Obasanjo took office on May 29, 1999, amid public and international approval, marking Nigeria’s transition from military to civilian rule. He was reelected in 2003 amidst allegations of voting irregularities. During his tenure, Nigeria faced internal challenges, including ethnic conflicts, the adoption of Sharia law in some states, and protests over oil policies in the Niger Delta. The Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta (MEND) conducted militant actions, targeting oil facilities until a ceasefire and amnesty in 2009. Obasanjo also navigated the Bakassi Peninsula dispute with Cameroon, complying with a 2002 ICJ ruling despite domestic criticism. His attempt to amend the constitution for a third term was rejected in 2006, leading to Umaru Musa Yar’Adua’s election in 2007, which was widely criticised for irregularities but sworn in nonetheless.
Umaru Musa Yar’Adua
Umaru Musa Yar’Adua faced health challenges during his presidency, leading to speculation and criticism about his ability to govern effectively. He travelled abroad for medical treatment multiple times, prompting concerns about a power vacuum in Nigeria. After a prolonged absence in late 2009, Vice President Goodluck Jonathan assumed the acting presidency following National Assembly approval, despite legal ambiguities. Yar’Adua returned briefly but remained incapacitated until his death on May 5, 2010, after which Jonathan was sworn in as president. Jonathan’s priorities included combating corruption, addressing energy issues, and negotiating peace in the Niger Delta region.
The 2011 elections – Goodluck Jonathan
During Jonathan’s presidency, electoral reform became a key focus, aiming to address issues from the 2007 elections. The 2011 elections, despite some logistical delays, were praised mainlyas free and fair. Jonathan won the presidential election with nearly 59% of the vote, while the PDP maintained control of the legislature and most state governorships despite some violence and allegations of fraud.
A significant challenge was the rise of Boko Haram, an Islamic sect that began its violent campaign in 2009. Boko Haram targeted government, military, and Christian institutions, leading to severe casualties and human rights abuses. In 2012, over 2,800 deaths were attributed to the conflict. Jonathan’s attempts at amnesty and legal measures were largely ineffective. The group’s kidnapping of over 275 girls in Chibok in April 2014 brought international attention and sanctions from the UN Security Council. Still, Boko Haram continued its attacks and declared an Islamic state in areas under its control in August 2014.
The 2015 elections and electorate concerns
In the run-up to Nigeria’s 2015 elections, key issues included the government’s struggle against Boko Haram, economic challenges exacerbated by oil price drops, and widespread concerns about corruption. President Jonathan faced criticism for inadequate efforts against Boko Haram but later mobilised regional cooperation to combat the group. The election, contested mainly between Jonathan and Buhari, resulted in Buhari’s victory, marking Nigeria’s first democratic power transfer between parties.
Muhammadu Buhari, 2015 – 2023
Buhari’s presidency faced challenges, including Nigeria’s first recession in over 25 years due to declining oil revenue in 2016. Economic recovery showed some progress by 2018, but poverty remained severe, with Nigeria having the highest number of people in extreme poverty globally that year. Buhari’s health issues raised concerns as he frequently travelled abroad for medical treatment. Progress in tackling corruption was criticised for allegedly targeting opposition members more than allies within his APC party.
Meanwhile, Boko Haram pledged allegiance to ISIL in early 2015, renaming itself ISWAP. By late 2016, the military made gains against Boko Haram and ISWAP, but attacks resumed later. Other security challenges included conflicts between herders and farmers in central Nigeria, unrest in the southeast, and the resurgence of the Biafran secessionist movement.
The 2019 elections
In the lead-up to Nigeria’s February 2019 general elections, over 70 candidates announced their presidential candidacy. The leading contenders were incumbent President Buhari, representing the APC, and Atiku Abubakar from the PDP, a former vice president. Initially scheduled for February 16, the election was postponed due to logistical issues and held on February 23 instead. Buhari won reelection with 56% of the vote, while Atiku Abubakar secured 41%. Buhari was inaugurated for his second term on May 29, 2019.
The 2023 elections
In Nigeria’s February 25, 2023 elections, 18 candidates vied for the presidency. With President Buhari unable to run for a third term, the APC chose Bola Tinubu as their candidate, while Atiku Abubakar (PDP) and Peter Obi (Labour Party) were prominent contenders. Campaigns focused on national concerns like insecurity, inflation, and unemployment. The election marked the first use of biometric voter verification and electronic result transmission but faced challenges,including technical failures and polling irregularities. Despite a turnout of only 27%, Tinubu was declared the winner with nearly 37% of the vote, meeting constitutional thresholds. Legal challenges by opponents were dismissed, and Tinubu was inaugurated on May 29, 2023.
