Colonialism has had a profound impact on Nigeria, shaping all aspects of its existence. Here are key moments:
BERLIN CONFERENCE
The Berlin Conference of 1884-1885, also known as the “Scramble for Africa,” marked the height of European competition for African territories. Organized by German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, the conference aimed to manage rivalries among European powers, expand colonial territories, and reduce conflicts. Prior to the conference, European nations were already engaging with African leaders and integrating into local trade, driven by the industrial demand for raw materials.
Photo Source: Quartz.
In 1876, King Leopold II of Belgium, after forming the International African Association, recruited Henry Morton Stanley to explore and “civilize” Africa. By 1878, Leopold created the International Congo Society, which initially had economic aims but secretly shifted to imperialism as Leopold took control. From 1878 to 1885, Stanley, now working for Leopold, established the foundations for the Congo Free State. In response to Leopold’s ambitions, French agents sent Pierre de Brazza to secure territory, founding Brazzaville. Meanwhile, Portugal, aiming to reclaim its influence, secured a treaty with Great Britain in 1884 to prevent the Congo Society’s access to the Atlantic.
This rush for African territories inevitably created conflicts among European powers: between the British and French in West Africa; the British, Egyptians, and Portuguese in East Africa; and the French and King Leopold II in Central Africa. Rising tensions between Britain and France prompted German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck to intervene, leading him to call a conference of European powers in Berlin in late 1884.
The Berlin Conference resulted in several key resolutions aimed at gaining public support, including a commitment to end slavery by African and Islamic powers. European nations signed an agreement to ban the slave trade within their respective territories. Additionally, the conference established that the 14 participating powers would have free trade rights in the Congo Basin, Lake Malawi, and surrounding regions, while also allowing free navigation of the Niger and Congo rivers. The “Principle of Effective Occupation” was introduced to prevent countries from claiming lands without actual control, requiring new territorial claims on the African coast to be communicated to other signatories. The conference also defined areas where each European nation held exclusive rights to pursue land acquisition.
The Berlin Conference is often seen as the starting point of widespread colonialism in Africa, which eventually extended across nearly the entire continent. Although African nations later achieved independence, they did so in a state of political fragmentation. As noted by Peter Muller and Harm de Blij in their book Geography: Realms, Regions, and Concepts, “The colonial powers superimposed their domains on the African continent. By the time independence returned to Africa, the realm had acquired a legacy of political fragmentation that could neither be eliminated nor made to operate satisfactorily.”
THE ADVENT OF POLITICAL PARTIES IN NIGERIA
Photo Source: Punch Newspaper.
Nigerian National Democratic Party (NDPP)
The Nigerian National Democratic Party (NNDP), established in 1923 by Herbert Macaulay—often called the “father of Nigerian Nationalism”—was the country’s first political party. It was created to utilize the elective principle introduced by the 1922 Clifford Constitution. The NNDP secured all the elected legislative seats in the 1923, 1928, and 1933 elections.
Centred in Lagos, the party gained support from the Lagos Daily Newspaper, which boosted its political activities and campaigns. The NNDP aimed to introduce compulsory higher education, promote fair trade for local traders and producers, Africanize the Civil Service, and expand party branches throughout Nigeria.
NIGERIA YOUTH MOVEMENT (NYM)
The Nigeria Youth Movement (NYM), originally called the Lagos Youth Movement, was established in 1934 by prominent leaders like Stanley Orogun, Professor Eyo Ita, Samuel Akintola, Chief Shonibare, and Ernest Ikoli (the first editor of the Daily Times of Nigeria), among others. It was the first genuine nationalist movement that brought together multiple ethnic groups, aiming to advance Nigeria’s political development and improve the socio-political status of its citizens.
In 1938, the NYM surpassed the Nigerian National Democratic Party (NNDP), winning all four elective seats in the legislative council. Dr. Kofo Abayomi served as president, with Ernest Ikoli as vice president and H.O. Davies as secretary. During its active years, the NYM promoted unity, and national awareness, and laid the groundwork for Nigeria’s independence. However, internal conflicts led to the party’s collapse in 1944.
NATIONAL COUNCIL OF NIGERIA AND CAMEROON (NCNC)
The National Council of Nigeria and Cameroon (NCNC) was established in 1944, with Herbert Macaulay as its first president and Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe as secretary. The inclusion of ‘Cameroon’ in the name reflected its administrative union with Nigeria after Germany’s World War II defeat, which placed the Cameroonian territories under British control.
The NCNC, composed of various religious, tribal, and trade groups, was the second significant effort to form a genuine nationalist party. After Macaulay’s death, Azikiwe assumed leadership. The party’s primary goals were to secure self-government for Nigeria, raise political awareness, promote nationwide collaboration, and provide a platform for political expression. The NCNC was notably influential among the Igbo community.
Before its dissolution in 1966, the NCNC achieved several key milestones: it unified Nigeria in the struggle for self-rule, launched the West Africa Pilot to challenge colonial rule, established the first regional government in the Eastern region, and formed a coalition with the NPC in 1960, leading to Nigeria’s independence. It also opposed the 1946 Richards Constitution by sending a protest delegation to London. In 1959, the party’s name changed to the National Council of Nigerian Citizens after Southern British Cameroon chose to unify with French Cameroon, while Northern British Cameroon opted to remain with Nigeria.
NORTHERN PEOPLE’S CONGRESS (NPC)
The Northern People’s Congress (NPC) originated from a cultural group in Northern Nigeria called Jamiyyar Mutanen Arewa. Formed in 1943, it was led by Sir Ahmadu Bello, with Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa serving as deputy. The NPC governed Northern Nigeria from 1951 to 1965 and was responsible for producing Nigeria’s first Prime Minister.
The party’s key goals were to advance the North politically and economically, strive for regional autonomy, foster unity among Northern communities, raise political awareness among Northerners, and eradicate bribery and corruption in Northern society. Many of these objectives were accomplished during its existence, including the elevation of Nigeria’s first Prime Minister. Prominent members included Makaman Bida, S. A. Ajayi, Muhammadu Ribadu, Sir Shettima Kashim, Ado Bayero, Musa Yar’Adua, Aminu Dantata, and Shehu Shagari.
NORTHERN ELEMENTS PROGRESSIVE UNION
The Northern Elements Progressive Union (NEPU) was a political party in Northern Nigeria, emerging from the earlier Northern Elements Progressive Association. Founded on August 8, 1950, in Kano, NEPU was a radical, socialist, and left-leaning party dedicated to advocating for the Talakawa—the “poor masses.” Embracing revolutionary ideals, NEPU positioned itself as a strong opposition to the conservative Northern People’s Congress (NPC).
As the second political party in Northern Nigeria, NEPU attracted several notable figures, including Mallam Aminu Kano, Mallam Sa’adu Zungur, Abdulkadir Danjaji, Hajiya Gambo Sawaba, Tanko Yakasai, Mudi Sipikin, and Abdullahi Aliyu Sumaila.
ACTION GROUP
The Action Group, founded by Chief Obafemi Awolowo in 1950, was a liberal political party in Nigeria’s western region advocating for unity, democratic socialism, and federalism. After winning the 1951 regional elections, Awolowo joined the federal legislature as an opposition leader, passing party leadership to Ladoke Akintola, which later led to internal divisions. The party promoted social welfare and free education to combat ignorance and exploitation in Yoruba society. However, the military coup of January 1966 ended the First Republic and led to the disbandment of the Action Group.
1960: NIGERIA GAINS INDEPENDENCE
In the 1920s, Nigeria became an active participant in the global Pan-African movement, aligning itself with the broader struggle for the liberation of Black peoples from European colonial dominance. This era saw the emergence of Herbert Macaulay, widely regarded as the “father of modern Nigerian nationalism.” In 1923, he founded Nigeria’s first political party, the Nigerian National Democratic Party (NNDP), which successfully secured representation in Lagos. By the 1930s, Nigerian political discourse increasingly centred on the dismantling of British colonial rule, leading to the formation of the Nigerian Youth Movement (NYM) in 1934—a sign of growing political consciousness. This period of activism coincided with a strengthening trade union movement, which culminated in a major general strike in 1945, signalling the rising discontent among the Nigerian populace.
In 1944, Macaulay joined forces with Nnamdi Azikiwe to establish the National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons (NCNC), a coalition of diverse groups united against British rule. In an attempt to quell nationalist sentiments, the British authorities enacted the 1946 Richards Constitution, which expanded the legislative councils but preserved British control. This sparked further unrest, leading to the demand for greater autonomy. The result was the Macpherson Constitution of 1951, which introduced regional autonomy and a federal structure but exposed tensions between regional and central authorities.
The year 1953 marked a pivotal moment when Anthony Enahoro moved the first motion for Nigeria’s independence. Despite its rejection, it set the stage for future debates. In 1954, the Lyttelton Constitution formalized a fully federal system, dividing Nigeria into three regions—Northern, Western, and Eastern—each with semi-autonomous governance. By 1957, the Western and Eastern regions attained self-government, and S. L. Akintola’s motion for independence was approved by Nigeria’s parliament, though British colonial authorities refused to recognize it. The following year, Remi Fani-Kayode revisited the independence question, successfully passing a motion in parliament, but the British still did not concede to the proposed date of April 2, 1960
As the North attained self-government, Sir Tafawa Balewa proposed a renewed motion for independence in 1959, which was ultimately accepted. This relentless pressure led the British colonial governor to declare that Nigeria would be granted independence in 1960. On October 1, 1960, Nigeria finally achieved independence, marking the culmination of decades of nationalist struggle and political manoeuvring.
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ECONOMIC EXPLOITATION BY THE COLONIAL ADMINISTRATORS
Before the advent of colonialism, Africa was far from economically isolated. For centuries, African states actively participated in international trade, stretching back to the era of the pharaohs of ancient Egypt. In particular, West Africa had established complex trading networks long before European intervention. However, the European Scramble for Africa dramatically shifted the direction of West African trade to align with the interests of colonial powers. Crops such as cotton, rubber, palm oil, and groundnuts—deemed economically valuable by colonial administrators—became the focus of agricultural production. These raw materials, extracted from Nigeria and other territories, fueled the rapid industrial expansion in Europe, subordinating local commerce in consumer goods to the interests of European markets.
Colonial exploitation extended to both mineral and agricultural resources. Colonial powers dominated the export trade of the colonies, neglected local industrial development, and forced African territories to bear the costs of any infrastructural improvements. British colonial policies, especially in agriculture, aimed to marshal Nigeria’s human and material resources to maximize the production and export of cash crops critical for British industry. This focus had severe economic consequences for Nigeria, as impoverished peasants were compelled by colonial economic policies to abandon food crop cultivation in favour of cash crops.
From the outset, British agricultural policies in Nigeria brought limited economic transformation. While plantation schemes were introduced, their societal impact was minimal, and their negative effects included the reduction of arable land for food crops due to land acquisition for plantations. The advent of colonialism and the partitioning of Africa by European powers ultimately disrupted the natural evolution of African economic systems, steering them toward serving the needs of industrializing Europe.
LYTTLETON CONSTITUTION
The Lyttleton Constitution is notable for being named after Oliver Lyttleton, the Secretary of State for the Colonies, rather than a Governor-General of Nigeria. His key role in drafting the constitution facilitated Nigeria’s establishment as a federation of three regions: West, East, and North. Prior to this, the Macpherson Constitution was deemed inadequate, as it contained contradictory provisions and faced challenges such as intra-party conflicts, ethnic tensions, the Kano riots of May 1953, and debates over self-government in 1956. To address these issues, constitutional conferences were held in London in 1953 and Lagos in 1954, aiming to align the views of Nigerian political leaders, colonial officials, and fiscal proposals for a more effective governance framework.
The London Constitutional Conference of 1953
The London Constitutional Conference of 1953, chaired by Oliver Lyttleton, aimed to create a new constitution for Nigeria that addressed the relationship between regional and central governments, independence, and the deficiencies of the Macpherson Constitution. Nineteen delegates attended, including representatives from the three Nigerian regions and the Southern Cameroons.
The conference resulted in several key recommendations: establishing Nigeria as a federation, regionalizing the public service, granting internal self-government to interested regions, designating Lagos as the federal capital territory, renaming the Governor of Nigeria as Governor-General, sharing legislative powers among federal and regional governments, and holding a subsequent conference in Lagos in 1954 to consider a separate regional administration for the Cameroons based on a referendum. Additionally, self-government would be granted to regions that desired it.
The Lagos Constitutional Conference of 1954
The Lagos Constitutional Conference of 1954 was a follow-up to the London Conference, focused on resolving outstanding issues. Key recommendations included the allocation of resources to regions based on derivation, granting partial autonomy to the Southern Cameroons, regionalizing the civil service and judiciary, and allowing the Southern Cameroons to remain part of the federation while establishing its own legislative body.
Features of the Lyttleton Constitution
The Lyttleton Constitution introduced several key features that significantly shaped Nigeria’s governance structure. It empowered regional legislatures, established exclusive and concurrent responsibilities for legislative authority, and recognized the central government’s precedence in lawmaking. The constitution replaced the office of Lieutenant Governor with that of Governor-General, allowed for the direct election of the Federal House of Representatives, and granted executive control of government departments to federal and regional ministers. It also decentralized the civil service and judicial systems, established a Supreme Court, created Lagos as the Federal Capital Territory, enabled Nigerians to elect regional premiers, adopted the principle of derivation for revenue allocation, and introduced the offices of Speaker and Deputy Speaker. This constitution ultimately served as a precursor to the Independence Constitution of 1960.