In 1960, Nigeria achieved independence from Britain, emerging as a nation formed from the colonial amalgamation of various regions, each dominated by a different ethnic group, notably the Yoruba, Igbo, and Hausa-Fulani. However, the initial euphoria soon gave way to deep-rooted regional tensions, exacerbated by ethnic rivalry, disparities in education, and economic inequality. The controversial 1962-63 census further intensified these divisions. In an attempt to ease tensions, the Mid-West region was carved out of the Western region in 1963, yet Nigeria continued to be divided into three major blocs: the Yoruba-controlled West, the Igbo-led East, and the Hausa-Fulani North. Ethnic conflicts persisted, with southern regions criticizing the dominance of the North and northern leaders fearing a potential Southern power grab.
In the mid-1960s, a sequence of military coups upended Nigeria’s political landscape, bringing Maj. Gen. Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi, an Igbo, to power. His tenure was brief, as a counter-coup led primarily by officers from the Hausa-Fulani North removed him from office. The chaotic aftermath saw the massacre of thousands of Igbo civilians living in the North, prompting a mass exodus of Igbos seeking safety in the eastern region. There, they questioned whether Nigeria’s military government would permit the eastern region to develop or even survive in the union.
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Lieut. Col. Yakubu Gowon, the new military head, sought to ease the crisis through diplomatic measures, including a constitutional conference and the Aburi meeting in 1967. However, when Gowon failed to honour the Aburi agreements, tensions reached a breaking point. In May 1967, Lt. Col. Odumegwu Ojukwu, the Eastern Region’s leader, declared the region’s independence. In response, the federal government attempted to curb regional influence by dividing Nigeria into 12 states, effectively partitioning the Eastern Region into the South Eastern, Rivers, and East Central States. This division isolated the Igbos in the East Central State, limiting their access to valuable petroleum resources located in the other two areas.
On May 30, 1967, Ojukwu formally announced the secession of the Eastern Region under the name “Republic of Biafra.” The federal military government perceived this act as a declaration of rebellion, setting the stage for the Nigerian Civil War.
Nigerian Embargo on Biafran Oil
As tensions escalated between the Federal Military Government of Nigeria and the secessionist state of Biafra, the Nigerian government swiftly implemented an embargo on all shipments to and from Biafra. Initially, oil tankers were exempt from this blockade, allowing critical oil revenue to flow into Biafra. Recognizing the financial lifeline that oil represented, Biafra moved quickly to assert its sovereignty over the oil within its borders, demanding royalties from companies operating there. In a significant turn of events in late June, Shell-BP, a key player in the oil industry, agreed to Biafra’s demands.
This act, however, provoked a decisive response from the Federal Government, which expanded its embargo to include oil. By cutting off Biafra’s oil exports, the Nigerian government aimed to cripple its financial base. This extended blockade found broad acceptance among international powers, tightening the economic noose around Biafra from the outset of the conflict. This strategic embargo would go on to play a vital role in the struggle, putting Biafra at a significant disadvantage that would shape the course of the war.
War breaks out
In the summer of 1967, Nigeria experienced a pivotal and tumultuous period as the Federal Government escalated its blockade to encompass crucial oil resources and initiated a “police action” to reclaim the secessionist region of Biafra. This move swiftly ignited a full-scale civil war by early July, with Federal troops advancing into Biafran territory. Despite being outgunned, the Biafrans showed remarkable resolve and resourcefulness, bolstered by local support. Conversely, the Nigerian Army was largely inexperienced, suffering from the loss of key commanders due to a prior coup, though it benefited from British backing.
In August, Biafran forces achieved a significant victory by crossing the Niger River and capturing Benin City, advancing toward Lagos before being halted at Ore. Federal forces then counterattacked, capturing Enugu, the Biafran capital. On August 9, Biafran troops, led by Lt. Col. Victor Banjo, exploited weaknesses in the Nigerian defences and quickly took control of the Mid-Western State.
In response to these setbacks, General Yakubu Gowon ordered Colonel Murtala Mohammed to lead the newly formed 2nd Infantry Division, tasked with driving Biafran forces from the Mid-Western State and launching further offensives. Gowon declared a “total war,” mobilizing the nation and significantly increasing the Federal Army from 7,000 to 200,000 troops by early 1969. Meanwhile, Biafra expanded its forces from 230 to 90,000 soldiers, organized into five divisions.
Nigerian offensive
In Nigeria’s Civil War, Federal forces initially succeeded in capturing key territories with Egyptian support, but international sympathy grew for Biafra as Egyptian bombers targeted civilian areas. Enugu, Biafra’s capital, fell in October 1967, though Biafran leader Ojukwu relocated his government and maintained resistance. Meanwhile, Nigerian soldiers killed civilians in Asaba and suffered heavy losses trying to cross the Niger River to Onitsha. In Operation Tiger Claw, Nigeria captured Calabar, isolating Biafra further and worsening the humanitarian crisis.
Despite these setbacks, Biafran forces achieved some successes in 1969, reclaiming Owerri and oil fields with help from foreign mercenaries like Count Carl Gustav von Rosen. However, Nigeria’s superior resources, Soviet backing, and intensified offensives ultimately overwhelmed Biafra, leading to its eventual defeat.
End of the war
Photo Credit: Magnum Photos.
The final collapse of Biafra began on December 24, 1969, with increased British support bolstering Nigerian federal troops led by Col. Olusegun Obasanjo. Facing severe ammunition shortages, a desperate population, and limited control over just one-sixth of its original territory, Biafra was overwhelmed by Nigeria’s renewed offensive, known as “Operation Tail-Wind.” Launched on January 7, 1970, the 3rd Marine Commando Division swiftly captured the Biafran towns of Owerri on January 9 and Uli on January 11. Biafran leader Odumegwu Ojukwu fled to the Ivory Coast, leaving his deputy, Philip Effiong, to negotiate the surrender, which was formally signed on January 14, 1970, in Lagos, effectively ending the civil war and Biafra’s bid for independence.
The final days saw little resistance, with Nigerian forces advancing steadily through remaining Biafran-held territories. After the war, General Yakubu Gowon emphasized reconciliation, using his influence to reintegrate the former Biafran states into Nigeria without reprisal or blame, fostering unity in the post-war period.
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Aftermath of the Civil War
The Nigerian Civil War, often referred to as the Biafran War, endured from 1967 to 1970, casting a long and transformative shadow over the nation’s history and its people. Its aftermath reshaped Nigeria on many fronts, including humanitarian, economic, and socio-cultural dimensions.
The Nigerian Civil War had a devastating humanitarian impact, claiming an estimated one to three million lives, mostly due to starvation and disease, particularly affecting the Biafran population. The conflict caused widespread displacement, creating a refugee crisis within Nigeria and in neighbouring countries.
Economically, Nigeria suffered extensive damage, with infrastructure in the southeast largely destroyed, disrupting agriculture and leading to severe food shortages and prolonged economic instability.
Socially, the war deepened ethnic divides, especially between the Igbo and other Nigerian groups, fostering mistrust and occasional renewed conflicts. Cultural losses were significant, with communities scattered and heritage damaged or lost.
Politically, the war entrenched military rule and led to the political marginalization of the Igbo, who have yet to see an Igbo president since. This marginalization has fueled Igbo nationalism and sparked the rise of neo-Biafran secessionist movements like IPOB and MASSOB.
On the international stage, the war drew global attention to Nigeria’s humanitarian crises, sparking debates on intervention in internal conflicts and affecting Nigeria’s diplomatic relations as various countries and organizations supported either the Nigerian government or Biafran separatists.
The legacy of the Nigerian Civil War has continued to shape the nation’s socio-political landscape. Ethnic and regional tensions, deeply rooted in the war’s aftermath, have contributed to recurrent conflicts and ongoing instability within Nigeria. Furthermore, the war has played a significant role in shaping Nigerian national identity, with the narratives surrounding the conflict profoundly influencing political discourse and cultural expression in the post-war period.
In summary, the Nigerian Civil War left an indelible mark on Nigeria’s political, social, and economic landscape, with its effects resonating in the country’s contemporary challenges and identity.